Most people have heard of Mexico's most famous cryptid, the infamous chupacabra, a spined and hairless bloodsucking canine (or lizard, depending on which version of the legend you listen to) accused of draining the blood from livestock. There is also a Mexican version of Bigfoot, the sisimite, which I included in my squatch around the world round-up a few months back. Here are a few other creatures from south of the border that haven't yet gotten quite that level of PR outside the country. 

Ahuitzotl

Aquatic mammals are a relatively rare category of cryptid, and this one is a particularly fun version. The Ahuitzotl is the size of a small dog, and has roughly the same build, though with small ears and a long tail that has a hand at the end of it. It lives in remote, swampy areas, where it submerges itself in a lake or river then makes a sound like a terrified woman or crying child. When somebody rushes in to help, it grabs them with its tail-hand, pulls them under, and strangles them. Then it eats their eyes, teeth, and fingernails and tosses the body on the shore. 

The Ahuitzotl was one of the first cryptids documented by Europeans in Mexico. Hernán Cortés' claimed one of his men was killed by this creature in an official report. There were similar creatures in both Maya and Aztec myths, as well as in the myths from people further north like the Hopi and Shasta, which has led some scientists to speculate the legends originated from encounters with a now-extinct species of otter. Another fun fact: the creature shares its name with the 8th Aztec ruler, who was in charge during the peak of the empire (1486-1502).

Alux/Chaneque

A lot of cultures around the world have a legendary creature that looks like a little human, and the Maya and Aztec had similar iterations of this theme. 

The Alux (plural Aluxes or Aluxob) is the Maya version, a knee-high person wearing traditional Maya garb that's usually invisible, though it can show itself to interact with people. Aluxob are protective spirits and guardians of the land, believed to be as old as the land itself, even older than the sun. Farmers can harness the powers of an Alux by building a shrine on their land, which either attracts one or creates one, depending on the legend. Once the Alux moves into the shrine, it spends the next seven years protecting the fields, bringing good weather, and otherwise helping the crops grow. After seven years, the farmer has to seal the Alux inside the shrine, or else it'll turn into a trickster, hiding the farmer's tools, spreading disease, or running off into the jungle to lead travelers astray. You can stop these tricks by leaving offerings to the Aluxob at the ancient sites where they live.

The Aztec version is called a Chaneque or Chanekeh, and looks like a child with an old face. Like Aluxob, they live in forests or near rivers, but they don't have the same farm helper reputation—they're just straight tricksters. Sometimes they just cause mild mischief, but they're also said to kidnap people and take them to the underworld through a dry kapok tree, or to attack people who intrude on their land with such intensity that their soul leaves their body. They can also communicate with animals or bring rain and thunder. They're also partially invisible, though it's usually said that children can see them but adults often can't.

Cihuateteo

In Aztec mythology, women who died in childbirth were said to become Cihuateteo, powerful spirits seen as equivalent to the spirits of warriors who died in battle. The Cihuateteo worked with warriors' spirits to get the sun through the sky, taking it west from noon to sunset (in some versions also carrying it through the underworld) after the warriors carried it across the morning. 

Usually the Cihuateteo live in a place called Cihuatlampa, the “place of women” that was west with the setting sun, but on certain days of the calendar they'd come to the mortal realm to mingle with humans. When they did, they'd take the form of crossroads demons and get up to the usual array of bad behavior like stealing children, causing madness, or luring men to commit adultery. When on Earth, they have claw-like hands and are usually shown wearing skirts fastened with snake belts.

Huay Chivo

This one comes primarily from the Yucatán peninsula, and is also found in adjacent countries like Belize and northern Guatemala. It's essentially the Maya iteration of a goatman, which is another common trope in folklore around the world, though Huay Chivo is distinct from creatures like satyrs or the Pope Lick Monster in that he's said to be a shape-shifting sorcerer, not a full-time goatman. The current legend is likely a melding of Maya and Spanish folklore, which is reflected in its name: Huay, from Waay, the Yucatec word for “sorecrer”, and Chivo, a Spanish word for goat. 

Huay Chivo can only turn into his goat for at night, and to do it he has to take off his head first and leave it at home. A goat's or bull's head grows in its place, and he also gets horse or goat legs, with a human torso in between, all of it covered in thick, black hair. He has glowing red eyes and anyone who stares into them is frozen with fear, then suffers delerium and fever that lasts for days. Some versions also bleed from the mouth whenever they talk. The only way to kill him is to carve a cross into a bullet and shoot it into the sorcerer's abandoned, disembodied head (though you can also keep it away by leaving a cross sprinkled with holy water by the door). 

There are a few origin legends for Huay Chivo. The core idea is usually that a young man loves a woman and wants to get closer to her. In one version, that woman tends his family's goat herd, and he asks the Maya death god Kisin (“the flatulent one”) to change him into a goat so he can always be near her, but the spell goes awry and he gains the ability to transform into a goat instead. In another version, the young man asks the devil to get him close to his crush and doesn't know he'll be turned into a goat until it happens, at which point he starts slaughtering livestock at night because he's so angry about it. The legend of the creature's existence persists to the modern day, and there have been sightings as recently as 2015.

Xtabay

Another one from the Yucatán peninsula, the Xtabay fits another well-represented archetype: beautiful women who are actually terrifying monsters. In this case, she's dressed all in white with black hair down to her ankles. Xtabay waits behind ceiba trees combing her hair with the spines of a tzacam cactus until an unsuspecting male traveler happens along (though in some versions of the legend she only attacks criminals and drunks). What happens at that point depends on the legend. In some versions she turns into a venomous snake and devours him. In others, she rips out his heart, eats it, then throws the body into a cenote. In a version written by ethnologist Antonio Mediz Bolio, she makes the men her slaves, keeping them in caverns around the ceiba tree's roots. 

Some scholars believe the legend of Xtabay started as a personified spirit of the ceiba tree, but was twisted into an evil being by the Spanish as part of their campaign to demonize indigenous beliefs. As far as her legendary origins, there are a few versions. In one, she starts as Xkeban, a beautiful woman who had many suitors but rejected all of them. They got jealous and started spreading rumors to ruin her reputation. When she was walking in the woods, a sorceress offered her the chance to escape the ridicule of her town by transforming into an immortal creature, the Xtabay. In another version, Xtabay is Xkeban's sister, Utz-Colel, who was chaste and proper in life but nonetheless had spiky tzacam cacti grow from her grave when she died, while her loose sister Xkeban's grave sprouted beautiful flowers. Utz-Colel comes back to life as Xtabay to punish the type of men her sister used to sleep with. 

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#Cryptids #Folklore #Mythology

Now, I know—reptiles can survive in northern Appalachia, which has plenty of snakes and turtles that call it home, along with amphibians like frogs and salamanders. But large reptilian predators tend to stick to warmer climates, especially the types of predators sometimes reported in northern Appalachia's lakes and rivers. Of course, that type of thing has never been a concern for mythological creatures. Norse mythology prominently features a serpent, after all, and that comes from another landscape where reptiles aren't exactly happy in the winter. Really, the prevalence of serpent-like monsters in Appalachia is refective of a much larger pattern. No matter the origin of the folklore or mythology, odds are, it has a snake.

Which naturally made me wonder just why snakes—specifically giant snakes—are so universal. I did a post on the prevalence of dragons a little while back, and I think some of those same explanations could probably apply here. Massive snakes could be attempts to explain discovered dinosaur bones or a record of encounters with now-exctinct species. While that could be the source of their appearance, though, the core role of snakes in many cultures' perceptions of the world, and the meaning assigned to them, goes well beyond this idea. 

The snakes that started everything

Many mythologies include one or more primordial creatures, beings that existed before humanity—and often even before the gods who created humanity. Their fate typically falls into two camps. One group are killed in process of creating the world (frequently so their body can be used to form the landscape), while the other continue to live on, either asleep underneath the earth or in some way supporting the earth or the universe. The legends of beasties in this latter group may include an prophecy that the beast will someday wake up and cause all kinds of havoc, potentially up to and including the end of the world as we know it. 

And you've probably guessed by now the reason I'm bringing this up: a lot of these creatures are snakes. To give a non-exhaustive list of examples, some of these include:

• Ayida-Weddo – the “Rainbow Serpent” of the Fon people of Benin that was also adopted into Vodou, which  helped creator goddess Mawu-Lisa shape the world and now coils under the world to keep it from collapsing. Earthquakes are caused by its movements, and it's said that someday it will eat its own tail, causing the Earth to sink into the abyss
• Andndayin oj – the Armenian “Abyssal Serpent” that lives in the black waters around the world tree
• Antaboga – The first being that existed in the mythology of Java in Indonesia. It created the world turtle that all other life sprang from, along with Dewi Sri, the rice goddess
• Bobbi-Bobbi – a sea serpent Dreamtime ancestor for the Binbinga people of Australia, who created bats for them to hunt and gave them boomerangs to hunt with
• Naga Padoha – giant serpent from the mythology of the Batak of Sumatra who guards the underworld. The goddess Sideak Parujar created the world on his back, and earthquakes happen when he struggles
• Pakhangba – powerful serpentine god of the Meitei in India, considered the ultimate ancestor as the father of the seven dragon ancestors of the Meitei clans
• Shesha – or Ananta, the king of the nagas in Hindu mythology, who holds the entire universe on the hoods of his many heads
• Ungud – snake god from the Wunambal people of Australia, who lived underground at the start of the world and helped the sky deity Wallanganda to create life through their dreams
• Unhcegila – Lakota and Dakota horned serpent who flooded the land when she emerged from the primordial waters, the proceeded to terrorize early humans until a warrior finally slays her, leaving her body to form the rocks of the Badlands

...and there are more that follow in a similar vein, often in the Rainbow Serpent archetype in Australia and the Horned Serpent model in American myths. To be fair, snakes certainly aren't the only animals to be given this status; turtles and birds are other recurring figures in this role. But snakes were commonly seen as embodying a kind of primordial force, even beyond the examples given here. The ancient Greeks, for instance, saw snakes as symbolizing an energy that can both create and destroy, and used snakes broadly in their mythology even though, as one scholar put it, snakes played “no meaningful practical role in the lives of the anicent Greeks.”

Scholars often cite some of a snake's unique attributes as the reason behind this. Shedding its skin is a big one. This makes it a logical symbol of renewal, rebirth, and transformation, things that are often heavy themes in mythologies. There's also the fact that snakes slither on the ground. They're connected to the earth, and through it to the ancestors and the underworld. Other snakes can transcend boundaries, moving both in water and on land or climbing trees, giving them a natural place as intermediaries between humans and the sky, water, and earth that are seen as realms of the divine. 

Snakes as creators

Another sizeable sub-set of mythological snake figures are those that are portrayed as creators or culture heroes. In part because they seem to contradict some of the prevailing wisdom about where snake monsters in folklore come from. One theory that came up a lot in my research was that giant snakes in folklore represented early humans' fear about encountering poisonous or dangerous snakes in the wild. That makes sense when the snakes are framed as monsters, but doesn't track quite as well to them teaching humans, or even creating them in the first place.

Some examples of mythical creatures in this category include: 

• Amaru – double-headed serpent said by the Inca to live at the bottoms of lakes and rivers. Its ability to transcend worlds makes it a conduit for spiritual knowledge
• Awanyu – horned serpent of the Tewa Pueblo who taught humans rituals related to rainfall, which he is said to control
• Degei – the creator god of Fijian mythology, who hatched an egg that produced the first humans
• Fuxi – culture hero with a serpent body in Chinese mythology, seen as the first emperor of China who invented music, cooking, hunting, fishing, and writing
• Kukulkan- the feathered serpent of Maya myth (later reprized by the Aztec as Quetzalcoatl) seen as a mediator between the heavens and earth, and representative of cyclical time
• Nuwa – mother goddess from Chinese mythology who molded humans out of yellow clay. She has the head of a woman with the body of a snake

...and there are certainly more. The snake is also associated as a familiar or symbolic animal with an array of helpful deities, like Wadjet from Egyptian mythology or the Rod of Asclepius from ancient Greece, which is the image of a snake circling a staff that's associated with medicine and healing. That seems particularly counterintuitive, but it again gets back to that idea of snakes as symbols for renewing life. Some alchemists even thought they knew the secret to immortality. 

It's also worth noting that even helpful snakes in folklore and mythology often have a dangerous side. Serpent deities are often connected to weather, meaning they can bring helpful rains but also devastating floods. Primordial beings that created the world can also ruin cities with earthquakes just by shifting a coil, or even destroy the earth entirely. The source of that snake around staff imagery used by the Greeks was an older Sumerian god, Ningizzida, who was often depicted as a horned serpent and took a seasonal descent into the underworld to represent the changing seasons. This is another example of the serpent in mythology linked to the earth, which makes it a source of both sustenance and fear. 

Snakes as monsters and destroyers

This is the role most modern folk tales cast snakes into, and it's a common one across mythology, too. It's also the one that makes the most logical sense, like I alluded to in the last section. Most humans have an instant fear and/or ick reaction to snakes. Stories about encounters with dangerous snakes are just as prone to the fish-story effect as anything else, with the offending animal getting just a bit bigger with every telling, or the snake's dangerous attributes might get intentionally exaggerated to turn the story into a cautionary tale for kids about why not to mess with the colorful thing making the rattly noise with its tail. 

The question of why snakes persist in cold-weather places is probably another one that has two answers. Some could stem from encounters or stories brought back by travelers in warmer landscapes. These kinds of stories would seem particularly fantastic and noteworthy to someone who's used to the more reasonably sized snakes found in temperate climates. The other answer, I think, is that the implausibility of a giant snake in a place like Pennsylvania is part of its appeal. It adds to a being's mystique if it's living somewhere it's not supposed to be. When animals do this, it breaks the rules you know for them, and that makes them seem even more powerful and terrifying. 

I suppose, when you stop to think about it, it isn't so strange that snakes are so common in myths and folklore. They live on every continent except antarctica, meaning humans have been living alongside snakes from their earliest days. I suppose it's no wonder they'd work their ways into our stories. 

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#Mythology #Cryptids #Folklore

Even moreso than other well-known cryptids like Nessie or Mothman, Bigfoot exists in the liminal space between folklore and reality. The sheer number of reported encounters with Sasquatch/Yeti type creatures over the years is its own fascinating phenomenon, even for those who don't personally believe the creature could exist. It's also the cryptid that people are most likely to believe in. A 2022 poll from Civic Science showed that 13% of U.S. adults believe Sasquatch is a real, living creature, which is lower than the percentage who believe aliens have visited Earth (31%) but higher than those who believe in Nessie (9%). A poll from the Association of Religion Data Archives has slightly higher figures, with 13% responding that Bigfoot probably exists, and an additional 3% responding that it absolutely exists.

And these statistics are just within the United States. There are iterations of this creature archetype that go by various names in pretty much every corner of the world. In some places, it's seen as a purely fictional folklore monster, while in others it's accepted broadly as a real creature that lives in the more wild parts of the landscape.

I find it fascinating to compare different versions of the same cryptid archetype, especially if you run with the thought experiment that this is a real genus of primates that has split into several species and subspecies in different isolated environments. In that spirit, here are some of the many hairy hominids found around the world. I certainly don't assume that this is a comprehensive list, but it's a good starter set of Bigfoot-like creatures.

Bigfoot in the Americas

The terms Bigfoot and Sasquatch are essentially interchangeable by this point across the United States. Both refer to a bipedal humanoid covered in brown or black hair. They're typically larger and taller than the average human, reported in the range of 6-10 feet tall, and are often reported to have a foul, wet-dog-like odor, sometimes with glowing red, orange, or yellow eyes.

This over-arching archetype of the hairy hominid is widespread across The United States and Canada. The Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization has logged sightings in every state except Hawaii (Washington, California, Florida, Ohio, and Illinois have the most reports), as well as 9 of the 10 Canadian provices (all except Prince Edward Island).

Different regions also have their own versions of the archetype:

Albatwitch - also the Apple Snitch or Apple Devil, this is one of the little bigfoot (smallfoot?) variants. These little guys are about 4 feet tall, covered in dark brown or black fur. They're lanky rather than bulky, with long arms and slender torsos. Sometimes reported with glowing orange or red eyes.

• Reported in southeast Pennsylvania, especially the Chickies Rock area along the Susquehanna River
• Likes to sit in trees
• Especially fond of apples, and in early reports from the 1800s they were said to have stolen apples from picnic baskets and throw the cores at people

Bardin Booger - Descriptions of this one vary, but it's always tall, sometimes as tall as 10 feet, and covered in hair. In some reports it looks very human-like while others make it very ape-like, and it has even been reported to wear clothes.

• First reported in 1947 outside of Bardin, Florida
• Sometimes makes a mumbling noise
• Gives off a rotten smell

Big Muddy Monster - also the Murphysboro Mud Monster. Around 7-8 feet tall with light-colored or white hair that's consistently reported as covered in mud and having the usual foul stench associated with Bigfeet. It's also reported with glowing red eyes, though in this case it's been suggested its eyes are actually pink and this is an albino bigfoot.

• First reported in 1973 in Murphysboro, Illinois
• Makes an ear-piercing noise that a witness described as “an eagle shrieking into a microphone”

Dewey Lake Monster - Also the Sister Lakes Sasquatch. One of the taller variants (10 feet tall) but slender rather than broad, reported to weigh around 500 pounds. Also features glowing eyes and pronounced fangs.

• First reported in 1964 around Dewey Lake and Sister Lakes in Michigan
• Lives in the swampland of the lakeshore
• Aggressive, reported to attack several people in teh summer of 1964

Fouke Monster - also called the Boggy Creek Monster or the Swamp Stalker. Reports range from 7-10 feet tall with a broad chest, glowing red eyes the size of silver dollars, and covered in long dark hair.

• First reported in Fouke (a small town in southwest Arkansas) in 1971
• Aggressive, initial encounter was an attack on a human
• Runs quickly and swings its arms like a monkey
• Smells like a mix between a skunk and a wet dog

Grassman - also the Ohio Grassman, Kenmore Grassman, Orange Eyes. Described as massive (up to 1,000 pounds) with long arms, a pointed head, no neck, and monstrously wide shoulders. They also have deep-set glowing red or orange eyes and are covered in black or very dark brown fur, making them one of the more horror movie ready Bigfoot variants.

• Reported in the woods of Ohio (most famous sighting was in Minerva, Ohio in 1978)
• More aggressive than most Bigfoot-like creatures, are known to attack people and kill dogs
• Smells of rot and the odor lingers for days in the areas where it's spotted
• Makes noises including growls, barks, and a cry that sounds like a baby
• More communal than other variants, spotted in groups of up to 5 including mothers with babies

Honey Island Swamp Monster - also the Cajun Sasquatch or La Bete Noire. This one has gray hair, with yellow or red eyes. Its footprints also typically have four toes, which is unusual for a primate.

• Reported in the Honey Island Swamp in Louisiana
• First report dates to 1963
• Local lore says they're actually a community of chimpanzees that escaped from a train carrying a circus

Kushtaka - Also called the Water Devil or Land Otter Man, this monkey-like cryptid has long, coarse hair and claw-like fingers, with traits of both monkeys and humans (and, of course, they stink). It also features in the folklore of the Tlingit, where they're portrayed as shape-shifters that can take the form of a human or an otter.

• First reported around 1900 in Thomas Bay, southeast Alaska
• In folklore, they can be either helpful and benevolent or tricksters who lure travelers to their deaths
• As comfortable in water as on land, which is different from most squatches

Mapinguari - Called the Brazilian Bigfoot, accounts from folklore depict this creature with a single eye and two mouths: one on its face, and one in the middle of its stomach. It's otherwise similar to other bigfeet, covered in brown fur and with a very bad smell.

• Said to live in the forests of Para Amazonas, and Acre
• Violent, often eating humans by shoving them head-first into their stomach mouths
• Sometimes said to have donkey hooves instead of feet, or feet that point backwards
• Has been suggested it's actually a surviving giant ground sloth

Momo - also called the Missouri Monster or Momo the Monster. Momo is especially furry even for a Bigfoot, with hair even covering its eyes and an oversized, pumpkin-shaped head

• First reported near Louisiana, Missouri in 1971, has since been spotted up and down the Mississippi River
• Very aggressive, known to eat dogs and cats
• Puts off a terrible odor

Mogollon Monster - also the Arizona Bigfoot. Its fur is reddish brown or black, though it lacks fur on much of its face, with a human-like beard. The eyes are deep-set and red and it's inhumanly strong.

• Reported along the Mongollon Rim in eastern and central Arizona
• Earliest documented sighting was in 1903
• Odor is reported more colorfully than most, described as “dead fish, a skunk with bad body odor, decaying peat moss, and the musk of a snapping turtle”
• Nocturnal and violent
• Makes sounds including screaming and whistling

Nantinaq - Also called Alaska's killer bigfoot. Very large (over 8 feet) and covered in dark fur with sharp claws.

• Reported in Alaska, most famously around the village of Portlock, where the creature was said to have caused the abandonment of the town in 1950
• Earliest sightings date back to expedition logs from the 1700s
• Attributed with supernatural abilities, including causing illnesses and catastrophes

Sheepsquatch – Hairy hominid that looks like a cross between a sheep and a bear, but standing upright on two legs. Other features include shaggy white fur, sharp teeth, the horns of a ram or goat, and glowing red eyes.

• Reported mostly in the TNT Area of West Virginia, with occasional reports in Kentucky and Virginia
• First sightings were in the 1990s
• Was initially reported to run from people but its behavior has become more aggressive over time

Sisimite - or Sisimito, it's also called the Mexican bigfoot, though it's also reported in other Central American countries like Nicaragua and Guatemala. It has black or brown fur and is taller than a human. Its most distinctive feature is that its feet face backwards and it has no knees. It also has just four fingers on each hand with no thumbs.

• Said to live high in the mountains
• Reported to eat humans, also to kidnap women to mate with

Skunk Ape - Large bipedal creature covered in black fur with glowing red eyes

• Reported in southern Florida, especially around Everglades National Park
• Name comes from its terrible odor
• First reported in the 1960s, with a surge of sightings around Dade County in 1974

Stone Giant - also Stone Coat, Genoskwa, or Ot ne yar heh. Hair-covered giant with rock-hard skin spoken of in Iroquois legends. They're 9-11 feet tall and can weigh over 1,000 pounds

• Aggressive and territorial, with the habit of twisting the heads off their victims
• Reported to eat humans they capture
• Armpits exude an odor that's a mix between a skunk and a dead animal

Ucu - also the Ucumar or Ukumar-zupai, it's a smaller creature, about the size of a large dog though walking upright. It's sometimes described as a bear-like humanoid, with small eyes and large arms.

• Reported in the Andes Mountains, especially Chile and Argentina
• Earliest documented sighting was in 1958 outside of Santiago
• Enjoys eating payo (a cabbage like plant)
• Makes a sound described as uhu uhu

White Bigfoot - also the Pennsylvania White Bigfoot, this is a hairy hominid that's (you guessed it) completely white. It has been hypothesized that this is an elderly bigfoot, and other suggest it could be related to the Sheepsquatch. Sometimes have red eyes.

• Concentrated in Pennsylvania, often in wooded areas
• Move very fast but are typically not aggressive

Woodbooger – or Wood Booger, a name earned from its purported habit of carrying off young children boogeyman style. Its appearance is like an upright ape, often depicted with fangs and a broad, muscled chest.

• Reported in Southwest Virginia near the towns of Norton and Saltville
• Earliest potential sighting was reported in a newspaper article in November 1892

Yeti and his Friends: Europe and (Most of) Asia

The legend of the Yeti is known about as widely as Bigfoot, and it's the same basic model: a large creature that walks on two legs and is covered in fur, although in this case said fur is usually white, or occasionally brown or gray. Tibetan lore establishes three varieties of Yeti:

• Nyalmo – black-furred and fierce, standing up to 15 feet tall
• Chuti – about 8-10 feet tall
• Rang Shim Bombo – 3-5 feet tall, with reddish-brown fur

There are also several other variants of the creature across the Eurasian continent, including:

Almas - plural Almasty, also called Bnahua, Almaslar, or Ochokochi. Looks more human than the typical bigfoot, with brown or reddish fur over its whole body but no hair on its face. It has a prominent brow and jaw but a flat nose. They're also said to craft tools and wear clothes, pushing them even more into that prehistoric human type of camp.

• First recorded in the 1400s in Mongolia, with reports and artifacts found around the Caucasus Mountains and Pamir Mountains
• In the 1880s a Russian nobleman named Edgi Genaba was said to have a captive Alma, named Zana, who worked for him and bore several hybrid children
• Live in family groups in underground dens

Barmanou - This creature appears in several cultures' folklores across the north of Pakistan, and the exact appearance can vary between tellings. Usually they have a blend of human and ape-like characteristics, and sometimes they wear animal skins, though rarely as full garments.

• Reported in mountainous regions of Afghanistan in Pakistan
• Said to abduct women as mates

Basajaun – the name of this hairy hominid from Basque folklore translates to “lord of the forest” in Euskera. In folklore he's a kind of culture hero, responsible for teaching humans blacksmithing and agriculture. As a cryptid, it's a strong and agile creature about the height of a man with shaggy fur.

• Lives in northern Spain (Andalucia)
• Reported as recently as 1993 in the Catalan Pyrenees Mountain Range
• Makes noises “resembling those of an enraged cat”

Chuchuna - also Mulen, Tjutjuna, or Siberian Snowman. Described in the folklore of the Tungus and Yakut people as Neanderthal-like but with extra white fur on its forearms. In other accounts it's a 6-7 foot tall creature covered in dark hair. Unlike most Bigfoot types, they're reported as sometimes wearing clothes, which has led to speculation it's a remnant population of a different hominid.

• Lives in Siberia, typically reported in rural, remote areas
• Documentation of sightings started in 1928
• Known for making raids on barns and farms at night in southeast Siberia
• Said to consume human flesh

Greyman - also Am Fear Liath Mor or the Big Gray Man of Ben MacDhui, this creature is extremely tall with short hair covering its entire body.

• Reported on Ben MacDhui, the highest peak of Scotland's Cairngorms
• Notable report was from climber John Norman Collie in the 1890s who heard someone climbing behind him
• Sometimes seen as a supernatural being, said to cause uneasy feelings in people climbing the mountain

Hibagon – This ape-like creature is about 5 feet tall, covered mostly in black fur but with white hands and feet. It has a face shaped like an inverted triangle, a snub nose, and large, deep-set eyes

• Reported around Mount Hiba in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan
• Lives in forested, mountainous areas
• Seems to be peaceful, and has fled rather than fighting in encounters with armed humans
• Smells like decaying flesh

Mande Burung - a large ape-like creature that has been called the Indian Yeti. Size estimates are around 7-9 feet tall and it has incredible strength, though it's a gentle giant, primarily an herbivore. Its hair is blackish brown and it emits the usual foul odor.

• Reported in the Garo Hills in Meghalaya
• Shy and harmless
• Encounters unique to this creature mention being abducted and forced to breastfeed from a female creature. The most recent report of this type was from 1999, and the abductee reported the milk was “sour with a mixture of bitterness.”

Yeren – also Man-Monkey, Man-Bear, or Wildman of Shennongjia. They stand over 6 feet tall and have tawny or reddish-black fur covering their whole body, with a face that has both ape-like and human traits. Their most distincitve trait are their long arms, which hang down nearly to their knees.

• Accounts go back about 3,000 years in western China
• Sightings in 1977 prompted a government-funded investigation
• Lives in caves in remote, mountains regions, particularly the Shennongjia District in Hubei Province

Apemen in Southeast Asia and Oceania

I'm lumping these together because there is often a lot of influence and overlap in the folklore of various cultures from this region. One intriguing detail is that many of the cryptids found in island nations tend to be shorter on average than those reported elsewhere in the world. Here are a smattering of the squatches found here:

Amomongo - This one's a bit shorter, about 5-6 feet, covered in white fur with long, sharp claws. It features in Philippine folklore, especially of the Negros Occidental province.

• Reported as recently as 2008 when it was said to have attacked two residents of La Castellana
• Lives in caves near the foot of Mount Kanlaon

Batutut - Small creature (4-5 feet tall) covered in dark fur all over with long hair on its head.

• Reported in the Kalimantan region of Borneo
• Prints were found in 1969 that looked human-like but with the big toe on the other side of the foot
• Flees when it encounters human, usually along the ground instead of through the trees
• Most active at dawn and dusk
• Likes to eat snails which it's been seen breaking open with stones

Gin-Sung - also called Dzu-Tehy in Tibet, or Kung-Lu in China. Giant creature covered in shaggy black or gray hair. Its head is flat with a pronounced brow, and though its hands and feet are human-like it has very long arms.

• Reported in the Himalayan Mountains of Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan
• Folklore dates back to 2,000 BC, has been spotted sporadically throughout the 20th century
• Often seen crossing from valley to valley over the mountains
• Are said to be omnivorous but harmless to humans
• Make nests out of leaves and branches

Hantu Jarang - also called Gigi, these are tall beings, about 9-10 feet tall, with dark brown hair over their entire body. It's part of the folklore of the Orang Asli people, who say there are only three individuals (a mating couple and their child), not an entire species.

• Reported in the Endau-Rompin Park along Malaysia's east coast, especially the Sungai Kencin area
• Reclusive and harmless
• Lives in forest caves

Kapre - also called the Agta or Tree Demon, this 7-9 foot hairy hominid is known for more human traits than most. This includes a taste for smoking cigars and a habit for wearing loincloths. They also have features similar to other Squatches, like red eyes, dark fur, and a strong body odor.

• Reported in the area of Malitbog in the Philippines
• Live in mangroves, santol trees, and swampy places
• Are often friendly to humans but can become violent if people cut down their trees
• Some legends say they wear a belt that makes them invisible to people

Kayadi - known to the Siawi and Amto people, this creature is man-sized and strong enough to throw a person. Their fur isn't as long or shaggy as other iterations.

• First reported in 2002 by American cryptozoologist Todd Jurasek
• Are reports of humans being kidnapped by Kayadi
• Can climb trees very quickly

Mawas - this word is also an Indonesian word for orangutan, though it's alternatively used to refer to a cryptid. It's 5-6 feet tall with black or brown hair and seems to enjoy eating fruit.

• Reported in southern Malaysia, most recently in Negeri Sembilan province
• Give off a “strong animal scent”

Moehau - hailing from Maori folklore, this is New Zealand's version of Bigfoot. It's distinctive features include yellow or gray hair and large tusks.

• Reported in the early 1900s by a farmer in the Corramandel Peninsula
• Is apparently an herbivore, has been spotted stealing from farmers' vegetable patches
• Said to carry off women and children

Nguoi Rung - translating to Forest Man, this Vietnamese cryptid is about 6 feet tall with gray, brown, or black hair everywhere except its face, hands, and the soles of its feet.

• Two were reportedly captured in Dak Lak Province in 1971
• Omnivorous, often spotted foraging for food
• Cryptozoologist Loren Colemen has posited they're surviving members of Homo erectus

Orang Pendek - Another of the little guys, this one is about 2-5 feet tall. They're strong for their size, though, able to uproot trees. They're covered entirely in short, dark fur with especially long hair on their heads, and have a human-like face, though their legs are shorter than a typical person's.

• Reported on Sumatra, especially in the Kerinci Regency
• Documented by Dutch colonists as early as 1923
• Live on the ground in remote, mountainous forests

Yowie - also Yahoo or Hairy Man, this is basically Australia's version of the bigfoot. It's not always large, with reports ranging from 5-12 feet tall, but it's violent and has talon-like claws and large fangs in a red mouth. Its fur is reddish or brown and its eyes are red or yellow. Some speculate it's a marsupial, but that's not consistent across accounts.

• Stories were first documented in the 1820s but date back much further
• Sightings reported as recently as 2021 in the state of Queensland
• Aggressive, reported to tear the heads off of kangaroos
• Name comes from yuwi, meaning “dream spirit”

Hairy Hominids in Africa

Mysterious ape creatures were reported in Africa by early explorers in the 1800s, including a creature somewhat equivalent to a bigfoot known as the koolookamba. That term today is applied to a different type of cryptid, a purported hybrid between a chimpanzee and a gorilla. As far as bigfoot analogs, I found a few in my research:

Agogwe - also Kakundakari or Kilomba, this is a jungle-dweller that's on the smaller side, around 2-5 feet tall. Its features are largely human, though it has longer arms and its body is covered in rusty-colored hair. Its skin color is another unique feature, said to be copper-colored

• Found in east Africa, especially Zimbabwe and Congo
• First reported in 1900 by English historian William Hichens
• Speculated to be a surviving species of australopithecine

Otang – this creature looks like a primitive hominid, and is comparable in height to a human, though covered in reddish or brown hair.

• First reported in the Knysna Forest of South Africa by biologist Gareth Patterson but have been known to local people for much longer
• Speculated to be a remnant population of a relic homonid

Waterbobbejaan - the name translates literally to “water baboon” and is applied to creatures with a range of descriptions. Some are small, others 7 feet tall, and fur color ranges from red to black. It's typically described with long arms, supporting theories it's a large baboon. It's also called fudu and the South African Bigfoot.

• Has been spotted in a range of places and terrains across South Africa, including a notable sighting in 1965 in Northwest Province
• Aggressive, has been accused of killing humans and livestock

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#Cryptids #Folklore #Mythology

The right level of worldbuilding and description is a tricky balance to strike for writers in any genre, and I think particularly so for those in speculative worlds. Not every type of story lends itself to lush, lengthy descriptions, either. In some modes, sparse details are a defining characteristic of the genre. Stories that stem from an oral storytelling tradition tend to fall into this category, which includes genres like folklore and fairy tales. Mythic voices give more flexibility for detailed descriptions, but even so it can break the effect to spend too many words grounding the reader. There are other genres that need this kind of deft hand, as well. Magical realism is one example—the rules of the world need to be established enough that the reader isn’t confused, but if you explain too much then it can lose the “magic” part of the name, or start to read like a different type of fantasy.

What's especially challenging about fairy tale writing is that a vaguely defined setting is a common genre trope. Fairy tales often take place somewhere “far away” and “once upon a time”, intentionally placed outside of a historical context. There are exceptions to this rule, of course, but the more solidly a story is tethered to reality, the less like a fairy tale it seems.

When writers are creating their own legends and folk tales, whether as stand-alone short stories or to integrate into a broader fictional world, there's a minimum threshold of details that they need to provide. There needs to be enough of the world defined that the reader can picture the setting, understand the rules that govern the characters, and navigate this reality without getting completely lost in the mire. The more a story world differs from our reality, the higher this threshold goes.

And that’s the rub: how to provide this needed context without bogging the story down with descriptive language its form doesn’t support. The answer, I think, comes down to weaving the worldbuilding into the fabric of the story. If you can do that, the reader won’t need lengthy descriptions or backstory that can break the voice and pull them out of the story. Here are some strategies that I've found to create this kind of integrated world.

1. Be precise and thoughtful in the details you include.

When you don't get much space to devote to descriptive passages, you need to make the ones you do include count. Seek out the details that really show the things that make the world what it is—ideally, things that are unique to this place and different from what we’d expect in reality. The details you can skip over are the ones that are expected, or that readers would assume from this type of story or setting.

The specific details that define a world aren’t always obvious right away. When I’m trying to find these, I’ll often start by brainstorming all of the world’s details—every little thing that I’m picturing in my head goes down on the list, however mundane or seemingly small. Once I’ve written all of these out, I can see more easily which of those details are the most useful, unique, or interesting, and those are the ones that actually make it onto the page.

The best details to highlight are ones that can do double-duty, not just filling in the physical present of the world but also helping to show its history, adding stakes or tension, or giving insights into characters. These are the details that can single-handledly replace whole paragraphs of description because they serve as short-hands.

This is highly useful when you’re writing at a flash length. I also feel like this approach works well in fairy tale type voices at any length. Zooming in tight on the little details keeps the big-picture setting more fuzzy and vague, which helps to reinforce that “once upon a time” type feel.

2. Let the language and voice do the heavy lifting.

How things are described can matter as much as which details get included. The way details are presented on the page gives readers insights into the broader world—what’s considered normal in this world, how characters fit into it, and the worldview, culture, and history of a place’s inhabitants can all be conveyed through word choice and phrasing decisions, without needing to spell it out directly.

One thing that great fantasy writers excel at is using the intrusion of the strange to convey what’s normal by contrast. This spares you the need to write out mundane details of the character’s day-to-day. Instead, “normal” can live in the white-space around what’s actually on the page, and the reader can infer it from how the character reacts to, thinks about, or describes the abnormal.

The first step to using this approach is to try and put yourself in the mindset of your world’s inhabitants. What kind of vocabulary fits in this setting? What metaphors or figurative language would they use? Tone is a big part of this, too—whether a character sees something as positive or negative, views things with hope or dread or indifference, tells you as much about them and their world as the thing itself.

Also think about what other associations or frames of reference from the real world you can bring in—again, this is a useful potential short-hand because the reader will make the leap themselves, without you needing to devote on-page words to defining it.

3. Give characters objects to interact with.

This is one of the biggest things in my view that separates well-written vague settings from a lack of grounding. Readers can still navigate a setting that’s non-specific. The problem often creeps up when the setting feels like a set-piece—it lacks dimension and realism, so it’s hard to imagine the characters actually inhabiting this space. Often, when I get this sense in a story, I read through it and realize the character has just been passing through and observing their surroundings, rather than actively engaging with them.

In this context, physical objects serve as anchors. They’re something tangible for the character to interact with, which helps to root them in place within that setting. The types of objects that are in their world can also convey other things about it. It’s an easy way to show the world’s level of technology, the resources or materials they have access to, the economic or class divisions, and the culture and history of the setting. These are all things that add realism and depth. You can also use objects as a sneaky way to explain the world’s rules, both in a law-and-order sense and when it comes to things like magic systems or speculative elements.

Objects are equally useful tools for characterization. It tells you a lot about a person to know what things they keep close at hand, which items they use most frequently or rely on for their work and life. This relates back to the last point, too, because how characters feel about objects they own, use, or encounter can also be deeply telling.

Giving characters objects to engage with can also be an easy way to add movement and activity to otherwise stagnant scenes. If there are moments in your story that are just two characters sitting in a room talking—or just one character sitting there and thinking—this is a perfect place to insert some physical thing for them to handle. Doing that keeps both the character and the reader connected to the physical present of the scene, rather than feeling like they’re just floating around in thoughts, memories, and dialogue.

Really, I think the ultimate answer comes down to mixing all 3 of these approaches: using physical objects and precise, unique details, described thoughtfully in a way that further illuminates the world.

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#Worldbuilding #Folklore #Fantasy

I was doing some wandering this past week and ended up in Portland, Maine, a delightful town that, among its other attractions, is home to the International Cryptozoology Museum. While there are plenty of smaller museums dedicated to specific monsters and critters, the ICM is the only all-purpose cryptid museum in the world, so I knew I needed to make a point of stopping in while I was in town.

And I’ll tell you: I wasn’t disappointed. The museum is relatively small but jam-packed with very neat displays and artifacts. Even as an avid student of cryptids, there were a few creatures featured in the museum’s exhibits that were new to me. I also picked up a new reference book with even more new finds, Loren Coleman & Jerome Clark’s Cryptozoology A to Z:

I will also say that the staff of the museum knows their stuff! I was wearing a squonk t-shirt I picked up at last month’s Squonkapalooza and was impressed that the attendant recognized it instantly. Awesome to see some love for squonk outside of PA! 

In any case, here were some new-to-me finds that I was particularly tickled by.

The Beast of Busco

Comes from: Fulk Lake (Indiana, USA) General creature type: Snapping turtle

The most famous sightings of this beastie come from 1949, when several people reported seeing a snapping turtle that was at least 4 feet across in Fulk Lake, nera Churubusco, Indiana. This wasn’t the only local sighting of a giant turtle, either. The farmer who owned the land, Oscar Fulk, reported seeing a giant turtle in the lake as early as 1898. 

The legend of the Beast of Busco lives on in Curubusco, which to this day holds a Turtle Days festival each June. Honestly, this is one of those cryptids that sounds completely plausible to me—they’ve caught sea turtles that weigh over 2,000 pounds, and there are unverified reports of 400+ pound alligator snapping turtles being caught as close as Kansas.

Emela-ntouka

Comes from: The Congo General creature type: Neodinosaur and/or rhinocerous Also known as: aseka-moke, ngamb-namae, Water-Elephant, Killer of Elephants, chipekwe (in Zambia)

The emela-ntouka is a large, four-legged, semi-aquatic cryptid hailing from the Likouala swamp region. They’re hairless with brown or gry hides and a single long horn on their nose. While they’re generally reported to be leaf eaters, they’re known to turn violent, with accounts of them killing elephants (hence the nickname, presumably). 

Game inspector Lucien Blncou was the first to describe the emela-ntouka in a 1954 article, describing reports that one had been killed at Dongou in the 1930s, though that specimen was never scientifically described. In 1981 three full-grown elephant corpses were found, all with punctured abdomens and their tusks intact (indicating their deaths were not caused by poachers or hunters), which was suspected to be evidence of a emela-ntouka kill. There have been few other sightings, though three-toed tracks found in the region have been attributed to the beast.

Origin theories fom the emela-ntouka vary. Some think it’s a kind of hold-over dinosaur, pointing to details like the crocodile-like tail. Others believe it’s an undescribed species of semiaquatic rhinocerous based on its horn and tracks. A third theory threads the needle between these two, which is that it’s a living arsinoitherium, a distant relative of elephants that looked like a rhino whose fossils have been found from North Africa as far south as Namibia. The only issue with this theory is that the most recent records recovered date to the Late Oligocene (roughly 28-23 million years ago).

Mapinguari

Comes from: Brazil, Suriname, Guyana General creature type: Primates Also known as: Didi

Interactions with these large, red-haired primates have been reported by indigenous people of the Amazon for hundreds of years. They first came onto western radar in the late 16th century when Sir Walter Raleigh was exploring the region. Sightings have continued to be reported through the 20th century. 

The Mapinguari is generally described as ape-like and bipedal with long arms. Its most unique feature are its footprints, which have a curved toe. In some legends, its feet are turned backwards. One version of the folklore says they’re human shamans who turn into hairy cyclopes, sometimes growing a gaping mouth on their stomachs. In others, they’re spirits that protect the rainforest—aggressively, apparently, since some legends say they twist people’s heads off when they’re mad.

While most ccounts call the mapinguari a primate, biologist David Oren proposed another theory in a 1994 article. He suggested they could be a surviving population of giant ground sloths, which were known to inhabit the area as recently as 12,000 years ago, after the arrival of humans to South America.

Shunka warak’in

Comes from: Midwestern US General creature type: Wolf or hyena Also known as: Ringdocus

The name for this creature translates to “carrying-off dogs” and was given to a mysterious unknown canine known to the Ioway and other indigenous people from the American Midwest. Westerners first encountered it in the 1880s, when ranchers described several sightings of a dark-colored beast with a sloping back and high shoulders. One of them shot the creature in 1886 and it was taxidermied and mounted, put on display in a store in Henry Lake, Idaho, whose owner gave it the name Ringdocus. 

Possible explanations for this creature include mis-identified wolves, a wolf/dog hybrid, an African hyena that escaped from a zoo or circus, a small cave hyena, or a surviving Borophagus, a hyena-like canid from the Pleistocene era.

Fun fact: the mounted specimen shot in 1886 went missing for several decades but was rediscovered in the Idaho Museum of Natural History in Pocatello in 2007. It has not yet been tested to figure out what it actually is—the current owner, grandson of the man who shot it, says he’s not sure he wants to put and end to the mystery, which I can grudgingly respect.  

Sinkhole Sam

Comes from: Kansas General creature type: Lake monster Also known as: Foopengerkle 

In the 1920s, two men fishing at Inman Lake in Kansas reported seeing a worm-like creature, roughly 15 feet long and completely round. There were more sightings a few decades later, in the 1950s, at which point a person with the definitely real sounding name of Dr. Erasmus P. Quattlebaum apparently declared it a “Foopengerkle”. As far as what that is, the internet gives me nothing beyond alternate takes on this same legend, so your guess is as good as mine.

Those attempting to actually explain the sightings suggested it could have been a cave species that was brought to the surface by human modifications to the landscape. Several waterways were being blocked or drained around the time of the first sightings, which could have altered the habitats and patterns of subterrnean or semi-aquatic species.  

Snallygaster

Comes from: Maryland, US General creature type: Bird/reptile

The folklore of the snallygaster arrived in the US with German immigrants in the 1700s, when the first accounts of the creature began around Frederick County, Maryland. Its name is derived from schneller geist, which means “quick ghost”, and it was described as having a metallic beak with razor-sharp teeth. While generally described with a mix of reptilian and avian features, some versions also give it tentacles, which is a fun twist. 

The legend was revived in 1909, when numerous residents reported seeing the creature or hearing it screeching “like a locomotive whistle”. These reports were later revealed to be a hoax, but they cemented the legend enough into local folklore that there’s now an American Snallygaster Museum in Libertytown, Maryland.

Tatzelwurm

Comes from: Europe (Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, European Alps) General creature type: Lizard Also known as: Stollenwurm, Bergstutzen, Springwurm, Daazelwurm, Praatzelwurm, arassas

 The tatzelwurm is a lizard roughly 2-7 feet in length that’s usually described similarly to a small dragon. It has a cat-like face and a serpentine body, though the number of legs varies between accounts (either 4, 2, or none, depending on the telling).

The first recorded sighting dates back to 1779, when two of the creatures suddenly appeared in front of Hans Fuchs, who promptly had a heart attack from the fright. He eventually died, though not before telling his family of his encounter. Other eyewitness accounts through the 19th century give the creature  forked tongue, wide head, and two stubby legs. A 1934 photograph of the creature is now believed to be a hoax by most, but there have continued to be sightings as recently as the 1970s.

According to legend, the tatzelwurm is most likely to appear when the weather is changing rapidly, or after periods of particularly high heat and humidity. It’s also said to suck milk from cows out to pasture, and farmers would place white roosters near the cow to prevent this (intriguing reptile/rooster connection that reminds me of critters like the basilisk or cockatrice).

Those who believe the Tatzelwurm does exist think it could be related to species like the Giant Salamander or Gila Monster, though both of those come from very different areas of the world (China and the Southwest US, respectively).

Tsuchinoko

Comes from: Japan General creature type: Snake Also known as: Bachi hebi

Physically, the tsuchinoko looks like a chubby snake, with a slender head and tail and a chonky body in between. It is also venomous, with fangs like a viper, and is capable of doing video game style double-jumps in mid-air. In some legends it also swallows its own tail and rolls around like a wheel. 

A rash of tsuchinoko sightings in Nara Prefecture in the late ‘80s prompted the 1988 tsuchinoko Expedition, with a 1 million yen reward for anyone who captured a live specimen. The following year was the first Tsuchinoko Festival, an annual event where people gather to hunt for the cryptid. The festival resumed in May 2023 after a Covid hiatus and takes place in Nakagawara waterside park, a “tsuchinoko hotspot” where there have been roughly 20 sightings of the creature since 1926.

See similar posts: #Cryptids #Folklore

One of the things I went to at Squonkapalooza was a talk by Ronald L. Murphy, Jr. on the meaning of the squonk. During the talk he mentioned some of the animals that used to live in Pennsylvania and are now extinct, like the woodland bison and wolverine. There are others that are officially extinct in PA but are still occasionally sighted, like the mountain lion and wolf. As he said it, if you see a wolf in Pennsylvania in 2024, then you’ve seen a cryptid: a creature that shouldn’t exist in a given place, time, or understanding of reality, and whose existence has not officially been proven.

This resonated in my mind with what the panelists said at a Confluence panel on the topic of monsters and cryptids. The question came up there of what exactly makes something a cryptid, and while the panelists agreed on many points, there are also some gray areas and squiggly boundaries for the category. For instance, is a cryptid by definition naturally occurring, or does it still count if the creature was genetically engineered or created completely in a lab? What about unusual hybrids?

I don’t know that I have clear answers in my head to some of these questions, either—and I also fully believe, with a question like this, there’s no one right answer. But I thought I’d share my musings on what I see qualifying a creature for the cryptid club.

Defining traits of a cryptid

The official Merriam-Webster definition of a cryptid is “an animal that has been claimed to exist but never proven to exist.” This is similar to other official definitions like:

• A creature that is found in stories and that some people believe exists or say they have seen, but that has never been proven to exist. (Cambridge English Dictionary)
• An animal whose existence or survival to the present day is disputed or unsubstantiated; any animal of interest to a cryptozoologist. (Oxford English Dictionary)
• Animals that cryptozoologists believe may exist somewhere in the wild, but whose present existence is disputed or unsubstantiated by science. (Wikipedia)

While there are intriguing and subtle differences between those definitions, they all boil down to a few core points. For something to be a cryptid, there must be belief in, but no proof of, its existence. The fact that it’s referred to as “a creature” or “an animal” also, in my mind, implies corporeality. In other words, a cryptid is something that physically exists and could be theoretically touched (or trapped).

The supernatural-ness of a cryptid is also left open-ended by this definition. Some cryptids are described as having abilities, powers, or other supernatural qualities, but many don’t. They behave and look like animals; the only speculative thing about them is whether or not they exist. This is especially true of the cryptid subgroup comprised of animals sighted after they were officially said to have gone extinct, like the thylacine, Malagasy hippopotamus, Zanzibar leopard, or eastern cougar.

Intriguingly, none of the definitions I’ve seen specify that a cryptid must be non-sentient, only that it is an animal. Many prominent cryptids like the mothman and bigfoot exhibit self-awareness, intelligence, and other marks of sentience. To my mind, this would mean that the term cryptid could also be applied to creatures that originate as humans, like vampires or werewolves. There is precedence of established cryptids that come from humans, like the Jersey Devil, so this isn’t a stretch of the term, in my view (though some may disagree).

Cryptids vs. monsters

To me, these are similar terms, and there are many creatures that both words would apply to. Many cryptids even have monster right in the name—the Grafton Monster, the Boggy Creek Monster, or the Loch Ness Monster are examples that come to mind.

In my mind, there are two key differences between these terms:

1. Monsters can be entirely fictional. Some people might believe they exist, but that’s not a requirement for the label.

2. Monsters are inherently frightening, dangerous, or violent. There can be gentle monsters, but they are still typically large, scary-looking, and could cause some damage if they had a mind to. Cryptids can be monstrous, but they can also be small, cute, and/or harmless, like the squonk or the Loveland Frog.

In other words, some monsters are cryptids, and many cryptids are monsters, but other creatures are just one or the other.

Are aliens cryptids?

Most reports of encounters with alien creatures meet all of those qulifications established for cryptids above. Some people believe they exist but there is no definitive evidence. They are also, as far as we know, corporeal animals, so that’s another box checked.

Another argument in favor of “yes” is that some people theorize many well-known cryptids originated as aliens. This is one theory behind bigfoot, for example, and some cryptids like West Virginia’s Vegetable Man are alien visitors in their primary lore. Given this, it’s not a stretch in my mind to include grays or little green men in the cryptid category.

Are ghosts and spirits cryptids?

Ghosts and similar paranormal activity meet the “belief and lack of proof” qualifications of a cryptid, but they don’t check the other key box in my mind: the creature or animal part. Ghosts are typically described as non-corporeal, and are therefore not cryptids in my view of the term.

Taking the question a bit further, this would then also potentially apply to other folklore creatures, like the will o’ the wisp, which is usually described as looking like a ball of light. Where the question gets trickier is when we’re talking about creatures that can disappear, turn invisible, or shift between planes. This capability is attributed in some way to many well-loved cryptids. Even our dear squonk, for instance, is said to be able to “hide behind itself”, essentially disappearing into thin air (if it doesn’t instead cry itself into a puddle of tears).

I suppose the line could be drawn based on what percentage of their time the creature spends in a physical form in our human plane. Fairies are generally not said to be cryptids, for instance, despite passing the “belief and lack of proof” test, I think largely because they’re seen as more intangible spirits than physical beings. Many people would say beings like brownies and djinn aren’t cryptids for the same reason.

Are gods cryptids?

Some of you immediately scoffed, but hear me out. People across history have genuinely believed in the existence of their gods, but there is no proof of any deity’s existence. Now, some deities are eliminated from contention on the basis of non-corporeality—but not all. In some mythologies, the gods were described walking among humans, even interbreeding with them to create hybrids or demi-gods.

And there are other beings described in religious mythologies that could arguably be grouped under the cryptid label, too. Angels and demons, for instance, were often described as having physical forms and regularly engaging with humanity. Most importantly, there are people to this day who believe they’ve seen or interacted with an angel or demon, so even if you’re skeptical on the idea of gods being cryptids, it seems their minions should at least count.

So…what are cryptids, then?

The most accurate answer is: it depends on who you ask. It’s one of those interesting cases where the one-sentence definition you’ll get will likely be the same across the board, but how people interpret it, and which creatures they include under the label, will vary widely.

For fiction writers, I think the answer is really: cryptid means whatever you need it to in that moment. When I was writing Cryptid Bits, for instance, it served my purposes to use the broadest possible definition of the term, which to me was “any creature some people believe in but whose existence has not been proven.” I even threw some wights and revenants in there because why not?

A cryptozoologist or folklorist taking a more research-based, academic angle on the question is going to define cryptid through a more specific lens. Even so, I think you’ll find some variety between individuals—and, to me, that’s exactly the way it should be. Part of the fun of talking about cryptids is engaging in that type of debate and speculation. They are hard to define by definition, with no absolute rules to follow when it comes to their identity. This is both a key aspect of the fascination with them and what makes them so fun to play with as a fiction writer.

See similar posts: #Mythology #Folklore #Cryptids

Brownies are just one of the many little people in world myths and folktales. I’m in the beginning stages of a new novel project that will use a variety of little folk. I’ve been reviewing my folklore research in preparation and thought other writers might also find inspiration in some of these lesser-known little people from around the world.

Abatwa

Culture of origin: Zulu

The Abatwa are one of the littlest of little folk, so small that they ride on ants. They’re also said to live in anthills, or at least dwellings disguised as anthills whose interiors have corridors and rooms decorated in colorful mosaics made of seeds.

The Abatwa are only selectively visible to humans, a common theme of little people tales. In their case, they can be seen only by wizards, children under 4, and pregnant women. Some myths say pregnant women can only see Abatwa of the same gender as their unborn child.

The general vibe of the Abatwa is peaceful, but they’re not without defenses. If someone steps on them or offends them, they shoot tiny poison arrows. When treated well, though, they’re helpful and like to give advice to those who can see them.

Al

Culture of origin: Armenian

Also known as: Hal (Persian), Alk (Kurdish), Ol or Xal (Tajikistan/Afghanistan), Almasti or Albasti (Central Asian Turks), Halmasti (Dards), Ali (Georgian)

The Al are childbirth demons, which is another vast category of folklore. They’re malevolent and look it, with boar tusks, copper claws, iron teeth, clay noses, and fiery eyes. Both males and females have a crone-like appearance and are said to carry a straw basket or woolen bag, where they keep the internal organs (mostly livers and lungs) that they steal from pregnant women. The Central Asian description is particularly fun—in that version, the Almasti has sagging breasts and hangs one over its shoulder, while the other shoulder carries their sack.

The Al are seen as the cause of miscarriages, destroying embryos in the womb. They also steal babies 40 days after birth, replacing them with imps in a kind of changeling narrative. The origin story of the Al is worth noting, too. In many Near East traditions, the Al was created by God to be Adam’s first consort, but the Al was too fiery (it’s not known whether this was in a literal or metaphoric sense a la Lilith). To this day, the Al targets pregnant women out of jealousy over being replaced by Eve.

Alom-bag-winno-sis

Culture of origin: Abenaki

Many little folk are seen as mischievous, somewhere between benevolent and malevolent, and that’s the case for the Alom-bag-winno-sis. They were seen as guardians of the water and I suppose only partially qualify for this list since they could change size and shape at will. In their base form, though, they’re about the size of a child but with stocky limbs.

Alom-bag-winno-sis could be seen by humans, but only in select circumstances. To see one was said to be an omen of death by drowning. They were also said to upset canoes and cause other mischief on the water.

Aside from their water-guardian status, the main claim to fame of the alom-bag-winno-sis is that they possess a magic pot. Put just a few kernels of corn inside, sprinkle with magic, and the pot would brim over with an abundant wealth of corn in short order.

Alux

Culture of origin: Maya

Also called: Chanekeh (Nahuatl)

The Alux is a knee-high being that goes about in traditional Maya garb and basically looks like a little adult. Normally they’re invisible, but they can choose to show themselves to people. When they do, it’s usually to ask farmers or travelers for an offering. Give an offering, and the Alux will protect you from thieves and bring good luck. Refuse, and they’ll play tricks and spread illnesses.

There’s debate of whether the Alux was inspired by Spanish Duende or pre-date Western contact. On an individual level, they’re said to be called into being when a farmer builds a little shrine for it on their property (called a kahtal alux). When first summoned, the alux will help fields grow for 7 years by bringing rain and patrolling the land at night. After this, the farmer needs to seal the windows and doors of their kahtal alux, or the resident will go wild and turn trickster (shades of brownie/bogart in this one).

Bohpoli

Culture of origin: Choctaw

Also called: Throwers

Unexplained sounds in the woods are attributed to the Bohpoli, who are roughly two-foot tall people living in dark woods. Their nickname of “thrower” comes from their tendency to throw things at pine trees to make noise. They’re invisible to most humans, and are generally mischievous if not outright malicious.

Some people can see Bohpoli, though, including prophets and shamans. To them, the Bohpoli are beneficial guides, helping them to create medicines and learn more about the forest. Interestingly, while the Bohpholi are another race of little folk said to steal kids, they do so for a good cause. They’re said to kidnap little children, taking them on as apprentices and teaching them about herbs and medicine. After, they return them to their tribes to serve as doctors and prophets themselves.

Canotila

Culture of origin: Lakota

Also called: Can Hotidan, Can’otial, Chanhotina, Hohno’gicidan, Chahoterdah, Oh-no-ge-cha, Ungnagicaca

The name Canotila translates literally to “little tree dweller” or “they live in a tree”, and was used for a race of forest sprites seen among various Sioux tribes. They were seen as messengers between the spirit world and humans, and would appear to people in their dreams to convey information or knowledge.

The internet is surprisingly light on other details about the Canotila, aside from referring to them as similar to wood elves and suggesting they could appear in a variety of forms.

Coblynau

Culture of origin: Welsh

Also called: Tommyknocker, Knocker, or Knacker (Cornish/Devon)

Coblynau are little people who live in mines and they dress the part, appearing as ugly men in mining outfits about a half-yard tall. What they lack in physical beauty they make up for in friendliness. Their Cornish name comes from the peculiar knocking sound they make to alert miners to rich ore veins or other treasures.

Granted, Coblynau aren’t entirely benevolent. They’re also known to play tricks, like stealing tools and food or blowing out candles and lanterns. Similar to other European little folk, it was common for people to leave offerings to keep the Knockers on their good side, specifically in this case tossing the last bites of their pasties into the mines.

Origin stories of the Coblynau vary. One version says they’re ghosts of mine workers. Other times they’re simply spirits who come with the land. Since the mid-1800s they’ve been a transcontinental legend, brought first to Western Pennsylvania by Welsh and Cornish immigrants and spreading from there across the US.

Fenodyree

Culture of origin: Manx

Also called: Uruisg (Gaelic)

Another helpful but unpredictable house spirit from the British Isles. Their main defining physical characteristic is that they’re very, very hairy. They don’t even wear clothes because they don’t need to. They’re also known as “a giant among fairies”, though not by human standards—they’re still just around 2 feet tall.

Fenodyree are expert grass cutters, earning them the nickname yn foldyr gastey (“the nimble mower”). They’d also herd sheep, repair fish nets, and help with reaping and threshing, making them well worth the food offerings people would leave them as a reward. If you want them to leave, instead, you can give them clothes, which offends their sensibilities so much they go to live elsewhere.

Haltija

Culture of origin: Finnish

Similar to words like fairy or elf, this is a class of mythical beings and there are multiple types of haltija in Finnish folklore. These are classed into groups called väki which are each dedicated to a given domain (e.g., forests, water, fire, death, iron, etc.). Across the board, they’re small in stature and generally helpful, as long as they’re treated with respect (probably you’re sensing a theme here).

Some specific types of haltija include:

• tonttu or maan haltija – spirits of the land, connected to a specific place
• kotihaltija – home elf, the tonttu who lives in every home and takes care of it
• saunatonttu – tonttu who lives in the sauna, protecting it and making sure people behave in it
• joulutonttu – a Christmas elf (sans pointy ears)

Fun fact: the word haltija may have derived from haltijar, a Gothic word meaning the original settler of a homestead. It’s used in modern Finnish to mean occupant or owner.

Hob

Culture of origin: Anglo-Saxon

Also known as: Hobgoblin

A hob is a household spirit that is very similar to a brownie. They look like small, hairy old men, tend to work at night, and were known to be both helpful and trickstery around homesteads, depending on how they were treated.

The term hobgoblin was a later evolution of the idea, coming about in the 1500s when the perception of hobs went from helpful house spirits to malicious entities. Hobgoblins still help around the house but they’re also shapeshifters and enjoy practical jokes. If you annoy or offend them, they can turn downright dangerous. Interestingly, gifts of clothing also banish a hob, though only the helpful ones; malicious hobs can’t be chased away.

Iratxoak

Culture of origin: Basque

At the base level, the Iratxoak are akin to other European household spirits: small, usually benevolent, and found on farms and homesteads. The main difference in this myth is that the Iratxoak can be trapped by leaving a small box on top of a bush at midsummer. Once trapped, they become servants of the person who caught them.

There is also a variant of the Iratxoak, called the Galtzagorriak (“the red pants”) who wear—you guessed it—red trousers, and are known for being clever and playful.

Jogah

Culture of origin: Iroquois (Seneca, Mohawk, Tuscarora, Cayuga)

Also called: Jogeon, Jungies, Dzogeon, Giket-on, Ohdow, Gahunga, Gendayah, Enkwehsayen

Jogah are 2-foot tall nature spirits who follow the helpful little people archetype. In some traditions they’re said to be the grandchildren of the thunder god Hinun. They help Iroquois farmers who are respectful toward them, encouraging their crops to grow and keeping snakes and other pests under control. If disrespected, they’re tricksters and can be dangerous, causing illness. Tobacco is a favorite offering to stay on their good side, left at the stone or mud “bowls” the jogah create.

Jogah live underground and are invisible by default, though they can choose to show themselves to people. Most often, they’ll reveal themselves to kids, elders, and shamans. Otherwise, you can only know they’re around from the sound of their drumming.

There are some variants of the jogah, too. These include:

• Gahongas (“stone throwers or rollers”) who live in rocky areas, and like playing “catch” by throwing boulders at people.
• Gandayah, who care for the plants in a given region, love strawberries, and take the form of robins (when they have good news) or owls (when they have bad news).
• Ohdows, underground guardians who come out at night to dance and hunt underworld creatures. Fingernails were left as offerings for these ones, which somehow helped them hunt, apparently.

Kakamora

Culture of origin: Maori/Polynesian

Also called: Kalibohibohi, Kakangora, Dodore or Mumu (Malaita), Nopitu (northern Vanuatu), Tutulangi

These little guys got a bit of a boost in fame thanks to their feature in Disney’s Moana. In myths, the kakamora predate humans on the islands of Polynesia, specifically the Solomon Islands (and, specific specifically, the island of Makira).

After people started living there, they retreated to the mountains and mostly leave people alone, except for when they come to steal fire. They are one of the more actively malicious races on this list, mostly because they sometimes eat people, luring them into the mountains by crying like a baby then capturing and killing them (a bit more intense than the Disneyfied coconut-wearing cuties).

Kakamora are said to look mostly like short people but with long, sharp fingernails. They live in caves and banyan trees and are scared of the color white, so waving a pale cloth can be one way to keep them from attacking.

Kijmuna

Culture of origin: Japan

Also called: Bunagaya

Hailing specifically from Okinawa mythology, the kijmuna looks like a toddler with red hair, though that hair can also cover their entire bodies. They also have an abnormally large head and tend to live in trees, specifically the banyan tree.

The kijmuna’s main skill is that they’re excellent fishers, though they don’t eat the whole thing—they’ll just eat one eye, then leave the rest. They’re also one of the mythological creatures used as an explanation for sleep paralysis. One of the pranks they’re said to play on humans is to lay on their chest at night, making them unable to move or breathe.

Korpokkur

Culture of origin: Ainu

Also called: korbokkur, koro-pok-guru

The version of the korpokkur in Final Fantasy doesn’t quite match its depiction in Ainu myth. In folklore, the korpokkur were said to be the original inhabitants of the northern Japanese islands. The name roughly translates to “people under the leaves of the Fuki” because they were said to live in pits with roofs made of butterbur leaves.

Korpokkur looked just like humans but shorter. Their skills included fishing and hunting, and they initially helped the Ainu in both these areas. Like other little people, though, they hated being seen, and would only exchange goods at night.

Fun fact: Some anthropologists have theorized the korpokkur were an actual early hominid, who may have arrived on the Japanese islands from the Aleutian Islands and were eventually displaced by the indigenous people of Hokkaido.

Kowi Anukasha

Culture of origin: Choctaw

Also called: Kwanokasha

The name of these little people literally translates to “forest dwellers” and they lived in the same places as the bohpoli, often associated with them (though without the child-thief aspect to their mythology).

Kowi anukasha were known mainly for their powerful magic. Thankfully, they mostly only used it to make mischief and weren’t seen as overtly malicious, though they could be dangerous. When treated respectfully, they could bestow their magic power on people.

Kurupira

Culture of origin: Tupi-Guarani

Also called: Curupira

This one is as much a fertility spirit as it is a race of little people, but so unique I felt like including it anyway. There are multiple etymologies given for the name. Some say it translates to “child’s body” while in other accounts it comes from kuru’pir, meaning “covered in blisters.” Whatever the case, it resembles a small man with bright orange hair that can ignite into flames. It also has backwards feet, which it uses to leave false trails that confuse travelers. When they don’t feel like walking, they ride collared peccary.

The kurupira has other abilities it uses to scare victims. It can weave illusions and makes a high-pitched whistling noise that drives victims to madness. Maybe its most distinctive feature, though, is its massive penis, which is so big it wraps around his waist like a belt. It’s also prehensile and can extend through windows or doors to impregnate women. The kurupira is therefore blamed for unwanted pregnancies, as well as the disappearance of young women, whom he steals away to his home in the forest.

Laftrache

Culture of origin: Mapuche

Also called: Caftranches

The laftrache originally hailed from the spirit world of Minchenmapu but went down to Mapu (Earth) after a fight with the Pillanes, another group of spirits. Some have since returned to the spirit world, but others still live underground across South America, with the most legends coming out of Chile and Argentina.

Along with their underground dwellings, laftrache frequent wild fields and forests. If you’re trying to find one, look down; the main sign they leave are their tiny poops. You can also look up at night, when they’re said to transform into glowing spheres that float from tree to tree.

Mannegishi

Culture of origin: Cree

These little tricksters are bald with big, beautiful eyes, very slender limbs, and six fingers on each hand. Their heads are said to be bulbous and large, with no nose. They live between the rocks along fast-moving rivers, where they play fun tricks like flipping over canoes to make people drown.

Fans of cryptozoology may be familiar with the mannegishi. It’s one explanation that’s been given for the Dover Demon, a small humanoid reported in Massachusetts in the 1970s. A similar creature was spotted in Toronto in 1978, called the Toronto Tunnel Monster.

Menehune

Culture of origin: Hawaii

Another entry in the “ancient displaced race” cateogry, the menehune hail from the mythology of the Hawaiian islands, where they’re said to live in hidden valleys and deep forests. They’re exceptional builders and crafters, and some ancient structures that predate Polynesian settlers on the islands are attributed to the Menehune. They only work at night, and if they don’t manage to complete the project by dawn, they abandon it.

Only children and adults connected to children can see the Menehune. If you’re lucky enough to see them, the Menehune will teach you to sing and dance—at least, if they want you around. Otherwise, they chase people off by shooting tiny bows at them. Their favorite food is bananas, so if you’re hoping to lure some that’s a good fruit to have on hand.

Menninkäinen

Culture of origin: Finnish

I wanted to include this one because it’s said to have been the inspiration for Tolkien’s hobbits. Menninkäinen are short humanoids in pointed hats who live in the forest. People can see them but they’re shy, avoiding contact as a rule, though they’re also curious and will sometimes wander in to human spaces. They’re friendly when respected. In legends, they often pose riddles or ask for favors, and are known to enjoy dancing and shiny treasure.

Folklorists think the stories of the Menninkäien likely started as ancestral spirits that evolved into a separate category over time. They’re in the child-thief category, said to trick kids into wandering into the deep forest.

Mimakwisiwuk

Culture of origin: Ojibwe

Also called: Memegwesi, mikumwessuk (Mi’kmaq), memekwesiw

These are magical little people who live in the wilderness. They’re the same height as a two-year-old but you can tell they’re not human because they have no noses. The main way to know they’re around is to look for their carvings on rocks. They also carve caves out of rocks to live in, usually along the shores of rivers.

The mimakwisiwuk have a similar dual nature to other little people: helpful for some, tricksters for others. Sometimes, they’ll provide healing herbs—just place a basket under a tree and tell the mimakwisiwuk what ails you, and the right herbs to treat you will be in it when you come back. While they’re not normally visible, they can appear to people during dreams, or in the physical realm to those whose hearts are pure.

Mooinjer veggey

Culture of origin: Manx

Also called: Muintir bheaga (Irish and Scottish Gaelic)

There is a lot more specificity about the appearance of mooinjer veggey than most. They’re 2-3 feet tall, wear red hats and green jackets, and often are seen riding horseback with packs of multi-colored wee hounds following them. You’ll only see them if they want you to—they’re invisible until they choose to reveal themselves.

The moinjer veggey live in hillsides and love playing music. People camping in the countryside at night would sometimes hear their melodies—though if you do, don’t search out the source; people who listen too long can get trapped. Moinjer veggey are also said to steal children and generally bring bad luck, though they can also cure diseases if they feel like it. People would leave dough or butter stuck to the wall after baking or churning as an offering to the moinjer veggey to prevent their tricks.

Mrenh kongveal

Culture of origin: Khmer

These nomadic humanoids of the Cardamom Mountains were primarily seen as guardians of animals. They were the supernatural herdsmen of wild animals, especially social herd animals like elephants and buffalo. Offerings would be left to them for luck in the hunt, or to ward wild animals away from crops.

Mrenh kongveal are the size of children, though what they look like is a mystery since only children can see them, specifically children 6-14 years old who are “pure of heart.” They can still communicate with other humans, either in their dreams or through telepathy that sounds like whispering.

Nisse

Culture of origin: Scandinavian

The nisse are for the most part a variant on the theme of European little people: small humans who live on farms and homesteads, protecting it from harm and causing tricks if mistreated. They’re seen as particularly short-tempered and easily offended. One way to offend them is to neglect the farm, which will result in sabotage like killing livestock, stealing tools, or causing general destruction to teach the farmer a lesson.

The appearance of the nisse varies depending on the region. In Denmark it’s beardless with red clothes and cap. The Norwegian version has four fingers, pointed ears, and reflective eyes like a cat’s. In some versions it only has one eye in the middle of its face like a cyclops.

One big thing about the nisse is that they like tradition and don’t like change. A lot of the ways you offend them are by being rude or violating unspoken rules. This tracks with their most common origin, which is said to be the spirit of the farm’s original inhabitant.

Nuno sa punso

Culture of origin: Philippines

Also called the “old man of the mound”, these little people live in anthills or termite mounds, though they can also be found under rocks, in trees, or along riverbanks. They’re generally seen as the guardians of the land, and it’s still considered wise to ask their permission before breaking virgin ground for a building or felling trees.

Appearance-wise, the nuno sa punso are fairly standard dwarf archetype: short old men with long beards. They don’t have the helpful aspect of many other little folk, though, instead more a race of beings you want to be careful not to piss off. If you disturb their mound, they cause physical ailments ranging from swollen body parts to vomiting blood, peeing black sludge, or growing excessive back hair.

Pkhagalberi

Culture of origin: Vainakh

One of the more powerful mythological races of small stature, the Pkhagalberi were enemies of the Narts, a mythological race of giants. While it might seem the height difference would give the Narts a distinct advantage, the Pkhagalberi were invulnerable to any Nart weapons, which helped to even the playing field.

The internet is shockingly light on further info about this one, aside from the mostly useless detail that the name translated as “Haareriders”.

Pyvsyan’sa

Culture of irign: Komi

Also called: Bannik (Russian)

This distinctly Slavic spirit was the guardian of bathhouses. They’re described as old men with long beards, naked except a covering of birch leaves taken off of worn out bath brooms. They can also shapeshift and look like whatever they darn well please, from a person to a piece of coal in the heating oven.

Bathhouses were seen as liminal spaces in Slavic peasant culture, and were where divinations were often performed. It’s also where many births took place, so great care was taken to make sure the pyvsyan’sa stayed in a good mood. One popular ritual was to suffocate a black hen and leave it unplucked under the building’s threshold. If these protections failed, the pyvsyan’sa would retaliate, often by burning down the bathhouse (which was common, and definitely had nothing to do with the fact that it was a wooden structure where things were kept very hot).

Pyvsyan’sa also had the power of prophecy. One way to consult him was to stand in the open door of the bathhouse with your back exposed. If you felt a gentle stroke, the future looked bright; a strike with claws meant bad times coming.

Sagay

Culture of origin: Philippines

This is but one of many dwende in Filipino myth, which all do tend to take the little people archetype when they have human forms. Some are benevolent—the Tagalog dwende, for instance, is a one-eyed, one-nostriled friendly little person that gives money to people.

The Sagay is one of the more malicious dwende. They inhabit gold mines and claim these riches as their own. They’ll happily trade their wealth, though—in exchange for the blood of children. If that’s not offered voluntarily, they’ll simply steal children at night. Granted, some versions paint a slightly gentler picture, saying the Sagay will give away their gold for mere chicken blood.

Tiyanak

Culture of origin: Philippines

Speaking of malicious little people from the Philippines, the tiyanak is another bloodthirsty creature. Its base form is similar to the standard dwarf—an old man with wrinkled skin and a long beard. Distinguishing features include a flat nose and one leg that’s shorter than the other, which is why it crawls instead of walking.

When it’s on the hunt, the tiyanak takes the form of a toddler or infant. It cries to attract hapless travelers, then returns to its true form to attack them. They also abduct children (natch). Their beef against kids, according to legends, is jealousy. They’re said to be the spirits of children whose mothers died before they were born, resulting in them being born “in the ground.”

Tofu kozo

Culture of origin: Japan

The Japanese tradition has several yokai, or spirits that take on various forms. In the case of the tofu kozo, that form is a child carrying a tray of tofu. Typically they’re depicted with bamboo or kasa on their head and wearing clothes covered in lucky charms.

The tofu kozo is a fully benevolent little folk. In tales, they’re often shown comforting other characters. The worst they’ll do is creepily follow people on rainy nights, but in general they’re shy, friendly, and funny. In fact, they’re more likely to get bullied by other yokai than to be the aggressor.

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One thing that sets ghosts apart from other fantastic creatures is that they’re one of the supernatural elements most likely to feature in literary fiction. From Hamlet’s father to Sethe’s daughter in Beloved, there are ample examples of hauntings across the literary canon. I see two potential reasons for this: 

1. A lot of people don’t think of ghosts as speculative. In a 2021 survey, 41% of respondents said they believe ghosts exist, a similar percentage to those who believe in demons. That’s lower than the percentage who believe aliens exist (57%) but much higher than belief in bigfoot (13%), vampires (8%), or werewolves (9%).

2. Ghosts and haunting are easy ready-made metaphors for emotions like grief, regret, loss, and nostalgia. This is reflected in our euphemistic language for these feelings—you might say someone is “haunted by the past” or that a place is “a ghost of what it once was.” Ghosts are reminders of what used to be, unchanging intrusions of the past on the present.

3. Their ephemeral nature makes it easier to insert them into a narrative. The “suspension of disbelief” factor is lower with a ghost than something corporeal because the reader has less of an expectation that it would leave physical signs and evidence. This also allows for more play between what’s real and what’s imagined by the narrator, especially in first-person narratives.

Honestly, it makes sense that ghosts cross genre borders because crossing borders is kind of their whole deal. They exist in the liminal space between life and death, and this charges them with a lot of energy at the same time it makes them very versatile tools for storytellers. 

This liminality and versatility can also make them tricky to define. The line between ghosts and other spirits varies from culture to culture, as do the ways they interact with the living and the extent to which they can influence and engage with the living world.

What exactly is a ghost?

Modern American lingo tends to frame ghosts and spirits and synonyms, but that isn’t universally the case. In most traditions, this is more of a square/rectangle situation—ghosts are a type of spirit, but not all spirits are ghosts. 

The term “spirit” can be broadly applied to any intangible being, typically one viewed as having intelligence and agency. Spirits can be connected to a place or object, though this isn’t a required defining trait. Similarly, while they can be linked to a now-deceased person, they don’t have to be—many cultures believe in nature spirits or similar forces that were never embodied in a living individual.

While the exact traits that define a ghost from other spirits vary depending on who you’re talking to, a good rough definition is a spirit that:

• Was once a living being and retains at least some memories of their life
• Is frozen in its appearance or mannerisms to the time period in which it lived
• Is unable to move between planes voluntarily, and is normally bound to a location or object that is either connected to their death or was of great importance to them in life

There are several other similar types of spectral being that overlap with spirits and ghosts in a wishy-washy and convoluted way that, again, depends greatly on who you’re talking to and what tradition they come from (which, to be fair, is fitting considering we’re talking about something that is, by definition, nebulous and formless). These include terms like: 

• Ghoul – A specifically evil spirit, often one that consumes human flesh. Ghouls may be intanigble or corporeal, and overlap as much with demons and similar creatures like goblins as they do with ghosts.
• Phantasm – An apparition that is explicitly a creation of the imagination or a hallucination of a form that isn’t there.
• Poltergeist – Roughly translating as “noisy ghosts”, these are spirits that make noise, move objects, or otherwise make themselves known to the living.
• Revenant – Any being that returns after death, either in spirit or corporeal form. This can include ghosts but also reanimated corpses like zombies.
• Shade – The spirit of a dead person that lives in the underworld.
• Wraith – A likeness of a living person seen as a faint, pale, or transparent image, often just before or after their death. Their main distinction from ghosts is that they’re sometimes not seen as entities with their own identity, but may simply be apparitions or projections of the individual’s spirit. Their appearance is also tied more to timing (around the time of a death) than to location.

…and there are other synonyms like wight, specter, and spook that generally mean the same thing as ghost, but can also have different definitions depending on the context. And this is just in English. Just about every culture in the world has some kind of ghost variant in its myths or folklore, often with its own accompanying set of lingo to refer to them. Which does lead to another question… 

Why are ghost stories so common?

If you believe in ghosts, the answer to this likely seems obvious: because they’re real and people tell stories about times they’ve encountered them. But, then again, there are a lot of real things that don’t get talked about very often. Whether they’re made up or factual, there’s no denying that ghosts capture the collective imagination more than other ideas. 

I mentioned the variety of metaphoric uses of ghosts earlier, and that definitely also contributes to their popularity in a storytelling context. Beyond this, though, a ghost can function as the physical embodiment of something from the past, allowing for characters in the story’s present to interact directly with history. Often, that history is a violent and tragic one—after all, if there’s a ghost that means somebody died, and usually not peacefully in their sleep. Ghosts give a voice to victims of violence who otherwise can’t share their story. Sometimes this is their primary purpose for existing; it’s a common trope for a ghost to haunt the place of their murder until their killer is caught, at which point they can move on to the other side.

I also see ghosts as representing a kind of community memory. In this sense, ghosts in local legends can serve a few different functions:

• To memorialize real people. Often these are people who were tragically killed, but in some cases they’re important figures from the place’s past who are now said to protect the land or the people who live there.
• To warn of danger. Ghost stories that take place on highways are often examples of this. Dangerous curves or intersections are frequently haunted by drivers who lost their life there, serving as a warning to others that they should take caution. The warning could also be more about the behavior than the place—a ghost story about a teen driving drunk, for instance.
• To acknowledge dark periods of a place’s past. An example of this would be ghosts of slaves said to haunt plantations in the South, or prisons and mental hospitals haunted by inmates. The actual people said to haunt the place may or may not have existed, but serve to keep the memory of whatever horrible treatment people endured there in the collective consciousness.

…which ties into another potential function of ghosts for fiction writers, which is that they can serve as a kind of avatar for the place they haunt. There are other ways to make a place feel like a character, too, but by giving it a ghost or two a place can gain a voice, a representative that can speak about its history and what it used to be. 

One last reason I’ll highlight for why humans find ghosts so appealing has more to do with our desire to go on after death. We want to think that we’ll continue to influence the world even after we’ve passed on. Becoming a ghost is a kind of immortality—not the one most people would choose, probably, but maybe better than nothing.

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