What coaching techniques increase strength immediately?
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As strength coaches know well, the right verbal cues, or the appropriate amount of verbal encouragement can affect how lifters perform during a workout. Similarly, it is well-known that the environment in which athletes work has a large impact on workout performance. Some of these coaching and environmental techniques have been studied by researchers, and it has been confirmed that lifting performances can be enhanced simply by altering the input that the lifter receives before, during, and after they perform reps during a strength training set.
And perhaps more importantly, research has shed light on exactly *how* these performance improvements occur. The study of such mechanisms allows us to infer how long-term adaptations might be affected by the different environmental cues. In other words, we can alter the information that athletes receive during a workout in such a way as to alter the adaptations that subsequently happen.
What types of coaching instructions can affect lifting performance?
Introduction
The simplest (and perhaps most popular) type of coaching instruction that affects lifting performance in a workout is verbal encouragement. More complex instructions include the provision of feedback regarding the objective performance of the lift (in terms of bar speed, or other measures) or the provision of an objective performance target (in terms of bar speed, rep number, or other similar measures). Clearly, the stipulation of an external focus of attention also fits into this category of interventions. Also, a phenomenon known as concurrent activation potentiation increases our ability to produce force. This phenomenon involves an increase in force production at one joint due to force produced at a different joint (the force that is exerted at the other joint is called a “remote voluntary contraction,” and it contributes to increased strength at the tested joint).
Let’s look at each of these phenomena individually.
#1. Verbal encouragement
While not every study investigating the effects of verbal encouragement on force production has found a beneficial effect, there are indications that strength is temporarily increased when it is present. Moreover, such increases in strength are accompanied by increases in muscle activation. This suggests that the mechanism by which verbal encouragement works is through an increase in motivation, which in turn increases the level of effort that the lifter exerts, which in turn increases the size of the central motor command signal to the muscle, thereby increasing the level of motor unit recruitment, which is what determines muscle activation levels. Indeed, this is logical, because most lifters would describe verbal encouragement as motivating!
In practical terms, this suggests that verbal encouragement will increase the number of motor units used during any given rep of a workout. This should then stimulate greater long-term strength gains, by means of larger increases in the ability to access high-threshold motor units, and by means of more hypertrophy (since more muscle fibers are trained in the workout). In other words, verbal encouragement is probably helpful for all kinds of athletes, powerlifters, and bodybuilders alike.
#2. Performance feedback
The provision of performance feedback refers to any feedback relating to the force, power, or speed of the bar during a lift. It differs from qualitative feedback regarding the movement quality of the exercise or subjective feedback about the perceived effort involved. Performance feedback can be provided during a muscular contraction (such as by providing a visual indicator of force production on a screen, during an isometric contraction) or immediately after a lift (such as by providing the numerical bar speed achieved in the rep that was just completed).
When performance feedback is provided, this does seem to increase objective performance measures such as force or bar speed in subsequent attempts. Also, it has been shown that such increases in performance are accompanied by increases in voluntary activation. Compared to muscle activation, voluntary activation is a more appropriate method for assessing the level of motor unit recruitment during a muscular contraction, so this gives us comfort that motor unit recruitment levels definitely are increased by this intervention. Consequently, we can be fairly confident that the mechanism by which the provision of feedback works is through an increase in motivation, which in turn increases the level of effort that the lifter exerts, which in turn increases the size of the central motor command signal to the muscle, thereby increasing the level of motor unit recruitment, which is what is measured by the improvement in voluntary activation. Again, this is logical, because feedback is generally motivating in all kinds of situations.
In practical terms, this once again suggests that the provision of performance feedback during a workout will increase the number of motor units used during any given rep of a workout, which will stimulate greater long-term strength gains, by means of larger increases in the ability to access high-threshold motor units, and by means of more hypertrophy (since more muscle fibers are trained in the workout). Indeed, long-term research has shown that there are benefits to strength gains of providing performance feedback, and that these strength gains are quite transferable to other athletic movements, indicating that they must have arisen due to either larger increases in motor unit recruitment or due to greater hypertrophy.
#3. Providing a performance target
The provision of a performance target is not the same as the provision of an external focus of attention. An external focus of attention involves the lifter observing an object in the external environment and focusing their attention upon it, which thereby improves coordination in the exercise, leading to a more efficient movement and superior long-term increases in motor learning. In contrast, the provision of a performance target can be invisible, such as when lifters are given a target bar speed to achieve on each rep of a set, or a target level of force to achieve during an isometric contraction.
Although the provision of a performance target is certainly different from the provision of an external focus of attention, it is not easy to differentiate from the provision of feedback. Indeed, some research has often provided feedback at the same time as a target, as part of the same intervention. In such cases, the two interventions seem to provide much the same effect, although the provision of a target may be slightly more effective than the provision of feedback. Nevertheless, these two interventions probably work through the same mechanism, since it is widely accepted that the provision of challenging goals function by increasing motivation (in many situations, and not just strength training or sporting movements), which increases the level of central motor command sent to the muscle, which then increases motor unit recruitment levels.
#4. External focus of attention
Following an external focus of attention involves the lifter observing an object in the external environment and focusing their attention upon it. Researchers have shown that when an external focus of attention is used, exercise performance is greater but the level of muscle activation is actually lower than when not using any focus of attention. This suggests that the use of an external focus of attention causes an improvement in the coordination of the exercise (and not an increase in motor unit recruitment levels), such that the movement becomes more efficient. Indeed, this can be confirmed by looking at standing long jump performance, in which the angle of take-off is greatly improved by using an external focus of attention, thereby increasing jumping distance without altering force production.
Consequently, the main benefit of using an external focus of attention is a superior long-term increase in motor learning. This primarily benefits the performance of the exercise used in training, because co- ordination is highly specific to the practiced movement and does not transfer to other movements as much as an increase in the ability to access high-threshold motor units. In this way, using an external focus of attention differs from the other coaching cues and interventions described above.
#5. Remote voluntary contractions
Many studies have shown that strength in an exercise can be enhanced when force is also produced in another part of the body by a “remote voluntary contraction” that causes “concurrent activation potentiation” in the exercise by means of a phenomenon known as “motor overflow”. Currently, relatively little is known about how this phenomenon actually works, and therefore it is difficult to assess the long-term implications of using it during training. Nevertheless, it does exist and has been described on several occasions.
For example, if a lifter performed a handgrip contraction while performing a maximal knee extension strength test, then the handgrip exercise would be the remote voluntary contraction, and we would expect an increase in (or concurrent activation potentiation of) knee extension force by means of motor overflow from the forearm muscles to the quadriceps. Indeed, in such cases, muscle activation of the quadriceps does seem to be increased by the presence of remote voluntary contractions such as handgrip exercises. Thus, it may be valuable for increasing gains in strength and potentially also in muscle size, although whether it stacks with methods that increase the central motor command by increasing motivation is unclear.
What environmental factors affect lifting performance?
Introduction
The simplest (and perhaps most popular) environmental factor that affects lifting performance in a workout is the presence of music playing in the background while we are lifting weights. Another popular factor is the presence of other people, usually in the form of lifting partners. Yet, perhaps the most important factor (and one that is very rarely discussed) is the presence of a certain degree of autonomy, which can be facilitated by strength coaches.
#1. Music
While not every study investigating the effects of background music on force production has found a beneficial effect, there are studies that show that playing music in the background can improve strength training performance during a workout. The presence of background music seems to have a greater effect when it is louder, when the tempo is faster, and when it is from a genre preferred by the lifter. While it is not clear whether there is an increase in muscle activation due to the presence of background music, the self-reported rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during a muscular contraction is reduced by the presence of background music, which suggests that the mechanism does involve an increase in motivation, and therefore an increase in the level of central motor command that can be produced for a given level of perceived effort.
#2. Presence of other people
Psychologists have been studying the effects of the presence of other people on the performance of various types of task for many decades, with the result that when performance is enhanced by the presence of other people, the effect is termed “social facilitation”. Yet, performance is not always enhanced by the presence of others. Indeed, it is commonly observed that the presence of an audience leads to reduced performance when the task being performed is complex and/or involves a high degree of coordination. In contrast, when the task being performed is relatively simple, performance is typically enhanced.
Researchers have suggested that the presence of an audience and/or performing a task in competition may have two broad effects: [A] an increase in arousal (which either leads to or follows from an increase in motivation, and thereby causes an increase in the level of effort devoted to the task, thereby increasing the level of motor unit recruitment that is achieved, [B] a shift in attentional focus towards the self, with the result that coordination is impaired (as often occurs when using an internal focus of attention). Consequently, it seems likely that any beneficial effect of the presence of other lifters in the gym occurs due to increases in motivation, and therefore increases in motor unit recruitment. Moreover, this particular intervention may be better for improving generalized measures of strength rather than exercise-specific or movement-specific strength for athletes.
#3. Autonomy
Historically, strength training programs have tended to be quite prescriptive in terms of the exercises that are to be performed, the order in which they are to be performed, and the various other training variables that accompany the exercises, such as the rest periods between sets, and the weights that are to be used. However, some recent research has suggested that allowing lifters to have an element of autonomy regarding their training may in fact enhance the long-term improvements that occur in strength and muscle size.
A lifter can be said to have autonomy if they have the ability to make choices that influence their immediate environment. Providing a very prescriptive training program may therefore deprive lifters of any sense of autonomy during their workouts. Conversely, providing room within the program for the lifter to choose certain features for themselves would be expected to increase the sense of autonomy.
Research has shown that when subjects are provided with a sense of autonomy, the level of force that can be produced during simple strength tests is increased. This may be caused at least in part by an increase in motivation, since various studies have linked the presence of autonomy to increased intrinsic motivation in a range of different tasks. Consequently, we would expect increased autonomy to produce an increase in the level of motor unit recruitment attained during the reps of a workout, which would in turn lead to increased gains in maximum strength (because of reaching a higher level of motor unit recruitment in each workout) and muscle size (because of the greater number of muscle fibers worked during each workout). Indeed, this is what researchers have found to date.
Yet, there are also indications that autonomy also affects coordination during exercise, and thereby improves the rate of motor learning. This suggests that autonomy can also increase gains in maximum strength in an exercise by increasing the efficiency of the movement in much the same way as the use of an external focus of attention (and very interestingly, the effects of autonomy and an external focus of attention on motor learning seem to be additive, which suggests that they can be stacked if the primary goal of a training session is to enhance coordination).
Ultimately, it seems that the use of autonomy may lead to increased strength gains through two separate routes (increases in transferable strength due to increases in the ability to access high-threshold motor units and due to increases in muscle size, as well as increases in exercise-specific strength due to increases in coordination).
What does this mean in practice?
Many of the coaching instructions and environmental factors likely work through a common mechanism, which is an increase in the level of motivation. Increasing motivation increases the effort applied, which increases motor unit recruitment levels. This causes larger long-term strength gains through greater increases in the ability to access high-threshold motor units, and greater hypertrophy. Examples of coaching instructions and environmental factors that fall into this category include: verbal encouragement, the provision of performance feedback and/or performance targets, the presence of background music, the presence of other lifters, and the provision of a degree of autonomy (remote voluntary contractions also increase motor unit recruitment, albeit likely not by increasing effort).
Importantly, we might anticipate that there is only a certain extent to which motivation can be increased during any given workout and on any given rep of a set within that workout. Therefore, it may only be possible to stack the effects of these interventions to a certain extent. For example, if a lifter is already strongly motivated due to the presence of other lifters and enjoyable background music, providing performance feedback and/or performance targets may have a smaller effect than if other lifters and background music are not available.
In contrast to the many interventions that exert their effects by means of increases in motivation, a small number of coaching cues and environmental factors seem to work through a different mechanism, which involves an increase in the level of coordination. Increasing the level of coordination in a lift increases the efficiency of the movement, which increases external force without altering motor unit recruit- ment levels. This leads to larger long-term strength gains by means of superior motor learning. Examples of coaching instructions and environmental factors that fall into this category include: the use of an external focus of attention and the provision of a degree of autonomy (although autonomy also seems to increase motivation as well).
In practical terms, this suggests that when athletes want to improve their ability to co- ordinate an exercise or athletic movement and hence increase sporting performance, there are few coaching options available for achieving that goal more effectively. Specifically, only the use of an external focus of attention and/or autonomy are likely to help improve coordination and increase motor learning in an exercise task over time. Yet, such improvements in coordination may not be required when the purpose of training with a particular exercise is to enhance performance in an unrelated athletic movement (such as when using Nordic curls to enhance sprinting ability).
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